A new interpretation of the Horns of Consecration

In a recent article Minoan ‘Horns of Consecration’ Revisited: A Symbol of Sun Worship in Palatial and Post-Palatial Crete  By Emilia Banou we take a closer look at the meaning behind these horns and how such a symbol came to be in Crete.  It is suggested that these horns of consecration are not actually representatives of bulls’ horns after all, and they are, in fact of Egyptian descent.  The horns have striking similarity to the Egyptian symbol of horizon.  This

The Narmer Palette

According to MacGillivray the Minoans used three calendars one of which is a solar, a lunar and an astral calendar were all three used to measure time in the Minoans’ civilization.  If this were the case, then the horns would be a reference point used to show where the solstices and equinox appeared yearly.  There is evidence lying in the symbols on the headdress of the goddess with upraised arms who relates to the god Hathor, and therefore becomes related to the sun.  Hathor is the Egyptian goddess of love and beauty, joy and motherhood, one of the most important deities to Egyptians.  The image of Hathor is often a cow goddess with head horns that hold a sun disk.  It has been speculated that she may be the cow goddess depicted on the Narmer Palette.  It has been told that the sun god Horus is “housed” inside of her.

Hathor shown on the left

There is a clear visual connection between these two symbols.  We see the horns of consecration atop Hathor’s head, and in this depiction there is a direct correlation between the horns and the sun.  Egyptian religion has influenced a great many religions, and seeing as how the Minoans and the Egyptians did business together, it is not unlikely that the both of them took from one another many customs and traditions, including deities and symbols alike.  I do not wish to deny or confirm speculations of one influencing the other; however I wish to illustrate their involvement with one another.   

The Minoans share many beliefs with the Egyptians, as I have stated before, they were most definitely involved, however who influenced who is hard to tell, it is clear that each had a focus, and each took what they wanted from other religions.  The theme of the cow goddess is prevalent in Minoan myth, and the Egyptians must have been aware of this.  The use of the symbol of the bull horn seems to be a coincidence, however the meaning that each culture gave to this symbol, I believe, held many of the same principles, with focus on separate areas. 

This symbol symbolizes the sun to the Egyptians, yet it is indicative of Hathor’s cow descent, which could have been an interpretation of Minoan myth.  The horns of consecration, according to Evans, were used for a ritual seat, though this is highly imaginative, it is not preposterous.  The location of the horns seem to symbolize sunlight, however, and in certain points on the calendar, the sun, moon, and various astrological symbols may be outlined by the horns themselves, giving reference to the Egyptian goddess Hathor.  We cannot forget that the Minoans also considered the sun to be involved in the mythology of the bull; the bull was used to represent the sun, according to recent discovery.  This could be argued as well; the horns of consecration represent the bull in conjunction with the sky god, who was represented as a bull, therefore connecting the earth god with the sky, and doing so symbolically. 

Picasso's Bulls

      The symbol of the bull has been held sacred, mighty, interesting, full of mystery, and very present in artwork for centuries.  Throughout history its meaning has remained the same, and in the context of each culture been able to represent different forms of both power and fertility.  Art is a fundamental factor in the preservation of this symbol.  If not for Sir Arthur Evans discoveries in Crete, or the presence of Minoan artwork in world trade, the symbol of the bull may have remained a secret of the past.  Though the presence of the bull in society has changed drastically, it still has an omni-presence in our world to this day.  The good we create from the bull are widely used every day and therefore contributing to our well-being.  While we no longer believe the bull has control over the weather, we do understand it has control over our stock market with phrases like “bull and a bear market.”  The symbol may have a new platform, however it still holds strong as a symbol of power.

     Pablo Picasso (among others) has explored the symbol of the bull quite extensively in his artwork.  In fact, he has produced so much artwork related to the myth of the bull that there are books written solely on his exploration of the bull.  In order to understand how Picasso interpreted the bull, we must first understand how he came to be aware of the bull, and what it meant to the culture that introduced it to him.

The image of the bull has always been a prominent one in Spain.  Believed to be Cretan influence, the image of the bull has been on Spanish coins as homage to their mythological presence in cultural history.  The first well-defined coins on which a bull appears seem to have a Greco-Roman influence.  These coins come from the Balearic island of Ibiza and the city of Sagunto on the east coast of Spain.  The presence of bull fights in Spanish culture can be speculated as a Roman influence; however the likelihood of this influence does not seem to be valid.  This is due to the timing and the stylistic differences.  It is more likely that, if anyone, the Cretans would have introduced the concept of bull games to the Spanish when trading with the islands of the Balearic.(Marrero pp 3-30)

     In Spain, the ceremony of beheading the bulls at the end of the hunt was recreated for public entertainment.  These events were called the taurobolius or bull hunts.  A special dagger was used to sacrifice the bull and then the blood of the bull, still warm, would be poured over “initiates.”  Initiates to what? I don’t know.  These ceremonies seemed to end around 390, and from them the modern bullfight arises.  Though the ceremonial aspects of these seem to be lost in the modern interpretations, this in shows that what happens today still carries with it myth and spirituality even if it is currently unaware. 

This is where Picasso thrives.  According to Marrero there is a constant duality of dark and light in the Spanish myths.  This is a very big part of Picasso’s work, and it is evident that his interest in bulls is rooted in the mystery of the bull.  This is shown in an etching Picasso made entitled Minotauromachy in which the minotaur shields itself from the light which comes from a candle held by a child.  (Blunt pp 24)

Goya's The Matador kills the bull

  This contrasts what Picasso’s predecessor Goya was showing in his art about bulls.  Goya made a series of etchings and paintings glorifying the many stories of the bull fight, usually set in the arena with the toreadors dressed in full flamboyant garb.  He did showcase the light and dark aspect of a bull fight, which must have interested Picasso.  There were two reasons for this; the first, and practical being that there were literally two types of seats available at the corridas one in sunlight and one in shade,  the other, more metaphoric significance would be the beauty of the bull fight in the light and the death and ugliness of this act would be in the darkness.  Picasso’s interest laid in the myth and unspoken spirituality of the bull in the same arena.  Or, in other words in the shadow and darkness of the arena.  He was interested in the myths that began the bull fights, not glorifying the senseless pastime of the act.  This is evident in his etching Minotauromachy. (Marerro pp 51-54)

Minotauromachy by Picasso

     The division of light and dark in the corrida is defined by the bloodshed of killing in the darkness and the grace of the act in the light.  Picasso, being a Spaniard, has lived with various metaphors for the “threatening bull” in his culture, and therefore portrays the bull as such.  Whether he is giving the bull human characteristics, almost showing a certain mood of anxiety or quiet regret or painting the bull as a force to be reckoned with, he is ultimately creating from his subconscious understanding of the terrifying quality of the bull.  Regardless of subject matter, it is clear that when a bull enters any of Picasso’s compositions it tends to be the dominating form of the piece.  This theme reinforces the emphasis many cultures, and therefore individual members of that culture (Picasso) place upon the symbol of the bull.

The variety of Picasso's artistic explorations of the bull

 Picasso's work focusing on bulls is very extensive.  He explored the bull in many different forms of art.  This could be seen as the pride of a Spaniard, or the struggle with the beautiful and the ugly in the presence of the same animal or persona.  Whatever the reason he explored this animal in etchings, drawings, paintings, sculpture, through realism, cubism, purely line, simplistically, etc.  The series of lithographs in which Picasso explores the simplest form of the bull, it is intriguing that he shows the bull with a large body and exaggerates the small head.  This speaks for the bull's actions, being no thought and all force, it can also be seen as a psychological interpretation of the inner bull we all face. 




     I wanted to discuss Picasso in order to show how his artwork has helped in a re-introduction of the bull into our modern society.  Picasso’s imagery still enters our everyday lives, and his influence cannot be overlooked when discussing art in the twenty first century.  Many symbols have been forgotten and resurrected throughout history and the symbol of the bull has held its ground throughout many civilizations.  Picasso was able to examine the bull in a way that allows us to admire both its beauty and its ugliness.  We cannot help but recall the many myths we learned about as a child when we see imagery of a minotaur in his art.  He consciously shows the bull’s history when creating a new image of the bull. 

The Bull Games

    As far back as we can go into history, people have been participating in bull games.  This means that in one way or another man has always felt the need to show his courage to the mighty bull.  In this article I am going to focus on the presence of bull games in Crete.  What was their meaning? How did they “play” with the bulls?  Why are people interested? 

Minoan Bull Leaping Fresco from Palace of Knossos

      It is clear to us now that many civilizations included the bull in their everyday myths because they played a large role in their culture.  The Hittites practiced bull leaping, the Syrians were participants in some form of bull games, the Sumerians practiced bull fighting and Eastern religions consider the bull to be symbolic of creation.  (Conrad pp 113-119) Minoan art represents the bull in both sport and sacrificial ceremonies.  There is much speculation as to whether the bull leaping frescos we have seen represent sport or something deeper and more spiritual.  (Rice pp 153-156) More than likely there are remnants of homage to early worship of the bull in the sport of bull leaping, however that is probably something left buried with the Minoans. 

     In order to discuss this topic further I wish to take a look at some paintings found in Avaris, Egypt.  On the eastern bank of former Pelusiac branch of the Nile excavators discovered a citadel that appears to be from the late Hyksos period and reoccupied in the early 18^th dynasty.  To the east of the remnants of this citadel they found old wall plaster with Minoan wall paintings.  On these pieces of plaster there are scenes of bull-leaping, which until this discovery had only been seen in the palace of Knossos.  There are also scenes of four bulls.  The beauty of these frescos is that they seem to be older than the frescos Evans found in Crete.  One of these scenes shows a bull in front of a maze pattern that is reminiscent of the myth of the labyrinth.  There are remnants of a frieze at the bottom of the tableau depicting the palace at Knossos.  This shows that the paintings were probably made in Minoa and travelled to Egpyt through trade routes, connecting these two dynasties together. (Bietak pp.33-42)

     The Egyptians appreciated these Minoan paintings, and for good reason.  The Egyptians seem to be the ones who introduced the inhabitant of Crete to the myths of the bull.  According to Conrad, in his book titled The horn & the sword the island of Crete was heavily influenced by Egypt and Mesopotamia.  These civilizations brought knowledge of art and architecture, religion and monarch-centered government to what, by 2000 B.C. was home to about one hundred cities.  Crete us a somewhat small island when compared to Sicily, lying below Greece, and it is full of mountainous terrain, which restricted farming communities to the coastline.  Because of this, most of the people living in Crete found other ways of thriving through arts and trade.  This is why the artwork we have seen from places like the Palace at Knossos is such fine displays of excellent craftsmanship.  They were masters of their time, which explains why we would find their artwork in places like Egyptian citadels.  

   
The artwork they were making seemed to be the only record of the events that took place in their daily lives, due to a lack of understanding any form of 6language they may or may not have used.  If we look at the imagery on the frescos from Avaris, for example we see scenes of bulls placed in context with what we would assume to be bull fighting toreadors.  In one particular wall fragment we see a highly detailed toreador descending from what appears to be an amazing vault over a bull.  Bietak assumes this fragment would have to be a piece of a larger fresco depicting a large Minoan sporting event.  This type of activity is exactly what we would call bull leaping, and the Minoans would have considered to be sport, both entertaining and death defying.  There are large similarities between the frescos from the palace of Knossos and the Avaris paintings.  The toreadors are reflections of each other moving in opposite directions, yet in the same exact pose.  They are both dark in complexion which may lead us to believe they are young men.  And the larger fresco from Knossos shows us that there were spotters there either “reffing” or tending to the toreador.  Alone, these two frescos show striking similarities, and together they paint an even bigger picture. (Bietak pp 33-42) 

     The larger fresco almost fills in the blanks for the fragments from Avaris, giving us an idea of the type of atmosphere this toreador would be in.  However the fragment shows high detail and mastery of materials in a way that the larger fresco does not appear to try to do.  There are clear differences between the three fragments as well.  This may shows artistic expression while also showing a universal theme in art (the depiction of real events; bull games) yet leaving room for the artists’ individual exploration.  Clearly the Minoans were excited about the bull games, and shared it with their neighboring countries, yet the artist seems to be free to express themselves individually.

Reconstruction of Minoan fresco using the pieces from Avaris, Egypt

 Whether or not the Minoans considered this to be spiritual or purely for show, I believe that is not the question.  The bull was a sacred animal to them, and at one point they considered any activity with the bull to be sacred and spiritual.  The sport develops from the myth, and the public enjoys a spectacle.

The Bull Cult

The Bull Cult refers to the overall worship of bulls, it includes all cultures that hold the bull to be sacred for any reason.  From Eastern Europe to the Indus Valley, the bull has been recognized for many reasons.  (Rice pp 3-5)  Whether they are using the bull as transportation, food, or deifying the bull, many societies hold the bull sacred.  The animal represents power because if you can eliminate the bull, you have food and ultimate control of the cattle it led.  For this reason the bull begins to represent power in ancient civilizations.  So how does this symbol travel across the globe and remain a sacred symbol of fertility and power?  Could Jung’s “collective unconscious” have something to do with different cultures recognizing the same symbol?  Water is universal, a desire to eat is universal, is the bull something so deeply related to human psyche or basic need, that all humans understand the sacred nature of these animals?

First of all, the power of the bull cannot be denied, no matter who you are, the bull is larger than humans, and therefore more powerful.  So what makes something sacred? Is it the power that thing possesses (and therefore gives to its beholder) or is it something more metaphysical?  Could the bull be the embodiment of god?  Why not?  We have always searched for meaning in our everyday lives, and therefore is not anything we believe in a sacred experience?  For early civilizations the bull must have represented everything they needed to survive.  An animal large enough to carry everything they could think of that would allow them to migrate to vegetation.  The bull led its herd of cows, and when man could control their leader, they were able to control the herd.   This meant food and endless items could be made from the animal and its species.  However controlling the cattle was a death-defying act, the bull was ferocious and could destroy any human who tried to get close to the herd. 

     This is what made a hero or god out of anyone who could kill a bull.  Author Donald K. Sharpes actually relates man’s taming of the wild beast to the origin of Spanish bullfighting.  He discusses the act of killing the bull in way that makes it homage to the act of slaughtering the bull for beef, as was done centuries before the tradition.  I will continue that thought in a later post, for now let’s focus on this ultimate symbol and how it travels form culture to culture.  When you look at everything a bull provides for a civilization, it is safe to consider this animal sacred.  We get access to cattle, which bring us beef, leather for clothing and tools, transportation and oxen for farming.  Overall, you can thrive if you are able to domesticate an animal like the bull.  This is what makes the animal sacred, not to mention, as I have previously stated in my last post, the bull’s virility which makes it a symbol of fertility. 

     “Before Superman, Batman, Spider Man, when children’s comics became popular movies with special effects, there were Greek heroic myths, tales and adventures of larger-than-life heroes with divine or semi-divine ancestry whose powers were beyond ordinary human capacity.  Many myths were about bulls.”  (Sharpes, p.70)  This explains the myth of the bull very accurately.  This animal was popular, as popular as superman at one time.  The Greeks fascination with the bull would more than likely be coming from influence from the Cretes, or “Minoans” according to the archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans.  I hope I don’t offend anyone by calling Sir Arthur Evans an archaeologist but for those of you who do not know, he is the man who is responsible for excavating and recreating most of what is now known as The Palace at Knossos.  This discovery showcases a society who is fascinated by the bull.  From bull-leaping frescos to the horns of consecration, much of this culture is based on the worship of the bull.

 The Minoans traded with everyone from Spain to Phoenicia, Greece, Italy, France, the Balaerics, North Africa and the early British Isles.  The Palace at Knossos is a testament to the beautiful architecture these people were making, and the minute details like the frescos and mosaics are such beautiful works of art that they have remained a large focus to artists to this day.  ( Conrad pp 113-126) The pottery they created was beautiful and functional, huge, small and everything you could ever dream of for a vessel.  They shipped and stored everything in their pottery, which means that even if it was decorated and made beautifully, it served a purpose first.  They either had a lot of time on their hands or a lot of pride in their work. 

According to Conrad the art of Minoa leads us to believe that they had a very extensive fertility religion;  the deities were a mother goddess of the earth and a father god of the sky.  (Conrad pp 114) There is much speculation over which god meant more or which god represented what, however the overall concept is that there were many cults that focused on both the male and the female aspects of life.  One thing that remains constant throughout is the emphasis on males being represented as bulls and the earth goddess favoring the bull as a sign of fertility.  We see on Minoan currency the images of bulls depicted as half man half bull or bulls relating to sunlight.  This leads us to believe that the presence of the bull as a deity was reminiscent of Egyptian pharaohs in the sense that it seems to be descending from the sun and omnipresent.  A supreme god, if you will.  

     The Minoans have passed their beliefs onto generations of cultures, including the Greeks, who passed this onto the Romans who passed it on to Spain.  This animal's legacy lives on to this day, and because of it we have many great products like RED BULL and basketball team.  Humor aside, the symbol of the bull lives on even in these products, they are an energy drink and a competitive sports team.  Both of which utilize the symbol of the bull to give the impression that they are forces to be reckoned with, full of virility and brute force. 

Art History

Agata Olek

Bulls in the News

A Brief introduction to some Bull Shit

     Symbols carry meaning, whether they are visual or written, spoken or discovered, we use symbols in order to relate ourselves to one another.  Minoan society had one very strong symbol which has often been used to represent the culture as a whole. 

 BULLS

Bulls were so important, they got to be jumped over by humans.

This image may look familiar:

  As the epicenter of Minoan culture, the Bull played a number of very important roles in Minaons' lives.  One role of the Bull was to be the main focus of death defying sports.  Anyone who could defy death in the presence of a bull was honored, and the Minoans were the best at Bull Leaping in their day and age. And if we skip forward a couple hundred decades we can see that a lot of these same principles are in practice today...

Running of the Bulls

Bull Fighting

So why is it that fighting bulls and outsmarting bulls has been a cultural phenomenon for decades?  We can take a look at the history of the bull, what it symbolizes and how it has interacted in society since the days of the Minoans. 

     According to Jack Randolph Conrad, author of The Horn and the Sword, the human race has always considered the bull to be a symbol for tremendous strength and great fertility.  This is due to the size of the beast, and our reverence for all things bigger than us.  Dr. Conrad looks back to the earliest artwork known to art historians; cave artwork.  He believes, due to the location and subjects that art including bulls was made in an attempt to conjure up control of the wild beast.  He believes there was a great deal of magic in the drawings, and the act of making art in general.  Because hunting the bull would have been such a difficult task he thinks that early man would have used any means necessary to get to the beast, especially mastering the image of one’s prey. 

      This shows some insight into the development of the symbol of the bull.  The need for a symbol was to direct magic to or from one thing to another.  Therefore creating drawings of bulls, and scenarios that happen with bulls would allow for people to discuss or at least visualize and externalize their desires for the bull.  Whatever the reason, these early people created a symbol out of necessity.  The reason the symbol of the bull would stand out so much to us now is because it was big and seemed to be a big focus for them.

     As culture shifts from simply hunting to cultivating and cattle, so does the symbol of the bull shift from food to fertilizer.  Bulls were now seen as a sign of fertility which is evident in this ancient hymn * “The great bull, the supreme bull which treads on the holy pasturage… planting corn and making the fields luxuriant.”  (It seems that early people had a very large vocabulary…) Man now understood that wherever their cattle went, the land became fertile.  So they paid homage to the bull in song and praise.  Evidence of bulls leading plows exist in Babylonian seals and show how this culture had migrated from around Asia Minor into what we now call Mesopotamia. It is in the cultures of Mesopotamia that the bull really begins to become a god.  This god was known as Enlil. (Conrad pp 46-51)

  Enlil was god of the storm, and supreme god of fertility who along with his wife Ninlil, the cow, caused the waters of the Tigris and the Euphrates to rise and overflow, fertilizing the lands.  In this book (The Horn and the Sword)  Dr. Conrad discusses excavations of a Sumerian temple in Ur, at al-‘Ubaid in which the images of bulls and cows decorate the walls in precious stones and metals.  This shows a great admiration and craftsmanship going into the development of these animals as symbols of religious deities. (Conrad pp 46-51)

     As society develops into a hierarchy, the kings of Sumeria would adapt the image of the bull and wear the horns of the bull as a sign of their divinity.  One prime example of this would be the scene depicted on the Victory stele of Naram-Sin, from Susa, Iran, 2254–2218 BCE.  This scene depicts Naram-Sin leading his people into victory over the Lullubi people of present-day Iran, and as we can see Naram-Sin is wearing the bulls horn helmet and standing taller than anyone else on the pediment.  The Sumerians related kingly strength with the ability to “overpower the ox.” Strength was the determining factor in Sumerian worship and honor of the bull, while the fertility of their land seemed to be the basis of the religious worship of the bull.  The author also talks about how the Epic of Gilgamesh composes several legends of two separate bull entities into one entity named Gilgamesh, the almighty wild bull. (Conrad pp 68-74)

     The Epic of Gilgamesh illustrates the Sumerian obsession with the bull as a symbol of every aspect of life.  Known to all as a god, the Sumerians use the symbol of the bull to illustrate and explain almost all aspects of their everyday life.  There are myths that explain the vegetation-cycles, myths to explain day and night and myths that embody fertility in both population and agriculture.  Even from early on, people have admired bulls and what they symbolize.  It seems that they still represent the same things, and as we look further into the future we will see if that image changes or adapts new meaning. 

* page 25 para. 3  The Horn and the Sword  Conrad.